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They also have limited capacity to raise resources through their own sources of revenue such as property tax. Municipal revenue in India accounts for only one percent of the GDP This leads to a dependence on transfers by the state and central government. This has been attributed to limited powers to raise revenue and levy taxes, and problems in the management of existing resources. In comparison, Karnataka ranks high among Indian states in key indicators for fiscal capacity like collection of property taxes, grants from Central Finance Commissions, and state government transfers.

Drastic changes in monetary policy framework can upset bond market: Rajan

The BBMP Act, further increases the taxation powers of the Corporation, by allowing it to impose taxes on professions and entertainment. Experts have recommended that the central government and the respective state government should provide additional funds and facilitate additional funding mechanisms for ULBs to strengthen their finances.

The revenue of ULBs can be augmented through measures including assignment of greater powers of taxation to the ULBs by the state government, reforms in land and property-based taxes such as the use of technology to cover more properties , and issuing of municipal bonds debt instruments issued by ULBs to finance development projects. Powers of elected municipal officials. The executive power with state-appointed municipal Commissioners and elected municipal officers differs across states. States like Tamil Nadu and Gujarat , and cities like Chennai and Hyderabad vest the executive power in the Commissioner.

In contrast, the executive power of the Corporation is exercised by a Mayor-in council consisting of the Mayor and up to 10 elected members of the Corporation in Kolkata and Madhya Pradesh. This is unlike large metropolitan cities in other countries like New York and London , where elected Mayors are designated as executive heads. Experts have noted that charging Commissioners with executive power diluted the role of the Mayor and violated the spirit of self-governance.

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The Mayor is responsible for approving contracts and preparing the budget estimate for the Corporation. He is also required to discharge all functions assigned to him by the Corporation. On the other hand, executive functions of the Chief Commissioner include: i selling or leasing properties owned by the Corporation, and ii regulating and issuing instructions regarding public streets. The Expert Committee on Urban Infrastructure has recommended that the Commissioner should act as a city manager and should be recruited through a transparent search-cum-selection process led by the Mayor.

A Model Municipal law, released by the Urban Development Ministry in , provided that the executive power should be exercised by an Empowered Standing Committee consisting of the Mayor, Deputy Mayor, and seven elected councillors.

Management of staff and human resources. Experts have noted that municipal administration in India suffers from staffing issues which leads to a failure in delivering basic urban services. These include overstaffing of untrained manpower, shortage of qualified technical staff and managerial supervisors, and unwillingness to innovate in methods for service delivery. The BBMP Act, provides that the Corporation may make bye-laws for the due performance of duties by its employees. However, it does not mention other aspects of human resource management such as recruitment and promotion.

A CAG report looking at the implementation of the Constitution 74th Amendment Act, in Karnataka has observed that the power to assess municipal staff requirements, recruiting such staff, and determining their pay, transfer and promotion vests with the state government. This is in contrast with the recommendations of several experts who have suggested that municipalities should appoint their personnel to ensure accountability, adequate recruitment, and proper management of staff.

Other states including Kerala , Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu also allow the state governments to regulate recruitment and staffing for ULBs.

In cities like Mumbai , and Coimbatore , and some states like Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh , while the recruitment process is conducted by the respective municipal corporations, the final sanction for hiring staff lies with the state government. This blog has been updated on Jan 19, to also cover the Madhya Pradesh Ordinance which was promulgated earlier in the month.

The comparison table has also been revised accordingly. These Ordinances seek to regulate religious conversions and prohibit certain types of religious conversions including through marriages. Few other states, including Haryana and Karnataka , are also planning to introduce a similar law. This blog post looks at existing anti-conversion laws in the country and compares the latest UP and MP Ordinances with these laws.

Anti-conversion laws in India. The Constitution guarantees the freedom to profess, propagate, and practise religion, and allows all religious sections to manage their own affairs in matters of religion; subject to public order, morality, and health. To date, there has been no central legislation restricting or regulating religious conversions.

Further, in , the Union Law Ministry stated that Parliament does not have the legislative competence to pass anti-conversion legislation. However, it is to be noted that, since , on multiple occasions, Private Member Bills have been introduced in but never approved by the Parliament, to regulate religious conversions.

These are: i Odisha , ii Madhya Pradesh , iii Arunachal Pradesh , iv Chhattisgarh and , v Gujarat , vi Himachal Pradesh and , vii Jharkhand , and viii Uttarakhand Additionally, the Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand legislations also declare a marriage to be void if it was done for the sole purpose of unlawful conversion, or vice-versa. Further, the states of Tamil Nadu and Rajasthan and had also passed similar legislation. Please see Table 2 for a comparison of anti-conversion laws across the country.

This led the state government to promulgate the recent Ordinance in Following UP, the MP government also decided to promulgate an Ordinance in January to regulate religious conversions. We discuss key features of these ordinances below.

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However, both Ordinances exclude re-conversion to immediate previous religion in UP , and parental religion in MP from this definition. These Ordinances prescribe the procedure for individuals seeking to undergo conversions in the states of UP and MP and declare all other forms of conversion that violate the prescribed procedures illegal. Procedure for conversion : Both the Ordinances require: i persons wishing to convert to a different religion, and ii persons supervising the conversion religious convertors in UP, and religious priests or persons organising a conversion in MP to submit an advance declaration of the proposed religious conversion to the District Magistrate DM.

In both states, the individuals seeking to undergo conversion are required to give advance notice of 60 days to the DM. However, in UP, the religious convertors are required to notify one month in advance, whereas in MP, the priests or organisers are also required to notify 60 days in advance. Upon receiving the declarations, the DMs in UP are further required to conduct a police enquiry into the intention, purpose, and cause of the proposed conversion. The UP Ordinance also lays down a post-conversion procedure. Post-conversion, within 60 days from the date of conversion, the converted individual is required to submit a declaration with various personal details to the DM.

The DM will publicly exhibit a copy of the declaration till the conversion is confirmed and record any objections to the conversion. Both the Ordinances also prescribe varying punishments for violation of any procedure prescribed by them, as specified in Table 2. Prohibition on conversions : Both, the UP and MP Ordinances prohibit conversion of religion through means, such as: i force, misrepresentation, undue influence, and allurement, or ii fraud, or iii marriage.

They also prohibit a person from abetting, convincing, and conspiring to such conversions. Further, the Ordinances assign the burden of proof of the lawfulness of religious conversion to: i the persons causing or facilitating such conversions, in UP, and ii the person accused of causing unlawful conversion, in MP.

The MP Ordinance additionally permits persons related by guardianship or custodianship to also register a complaint, provided they take the leave of the court. Further, the MP Ordinance assigns the power to investigate such complaints to police officers of the rank of Sub-Inspector and above. Marriages involving religious conversion: As per the UP Ordinance, a marriage is liable to be declared null and void, if: i it was done for the sole purpose of unlawful conversion, or vice-versa, and ii the religious conversion was not done as per the procedure specified in the Ordinance.

Similarly, the MP Ordinance declares a marriage null and void, if: i it was done with an intent to convert a person, and ii the conversion took place through any of the prohibited means specified under the Ordinance. Further, the MP Ordinance explicitly provides for punishment as specified in Table 2 for the concealment of religion for the purpose of marriage.

Right to inheritance and maintenance: The MP Ordinance additionally provides certain safeguards for women and children. It considers children born out of a marriage involving unlawful religious conversion as legitimate and provides for them to have the right to property of only the father as per the law governing the inheritance of the father. Further, the Ordinance provides for maintenance to be given to: i a woman whose marriage is deemed unlawful under the Ordinance, and ii her children born out of such a marriage.

Punishment for unlawful conversions : Both the MP and UP Ordinances provide for punishment for causing or facilitating unlawful religious conversion, as specified in Table 1. Also, all offences under both Ordinances are cognisable and non-bailable. Additionally, under the UP Ordinance , the accused will be liable to pay compensation of up to five lakh rupees to the victim of conversion and repeat offences will attract double the punishment specified for the respective offence. Each Bitcoin is basically a computer file which is stored in a 'digital wallet' app on a smartphone or computer.

People can send Bitcoins or part of one to your digital wallet, and you can send Bitcoins to other people. Every single transaction is recorded in a public list called the blockchain. This makes it possible to trace the history of Bitcoins to stop people from spending coins they do not own, making copies or undo-ing transactions. There are three main ways people get Bitcoins. In order for the Bitcoin system to work, people can make their computer process transactions for everybody. The computers are made to work out incredibly difficult sums.

Occasionally they are rewarded with a Bitcoin for the owner to keep. People set up powerful computers just to try and get Bitcoins. This is called mining. But the sums are becoming more and more difficult to stop too many Bitcoins being generated. If you started mining now it could be years before you got a single Bitcoin. You could end up spending more money on electricity for your computer than the Bitcoin would be worth.

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There are lots of things other than money which we consider valuable like gold and diamonds. The Aztecs used cocoa beans as money! Bitcoins are valuable because people are willing to exchange them for real goods and services, and even cash. Some people like the fact that Bitcoin is not controlled by the government or banks. People can also spend their Bitcoins fairly anonymously. Although all transactions are recorded, nobody would know which 'account number' was yours unless you told them.

In an online chat with social media users in January , the world's richest man, Elon Musk, said he was a big supporter of Bitcoin. He even went as far as to change his Twitter bio to " bitcoin". He has repeatedly shown his support to online currencies in recent years and caused major movements in their values due to his own personal wealth and influence.

This particular endorsement led to the value of Bitcoin to rise significantly. Every transaction is recorded publicly so it's very difficult to copy Bitcoins, make fake ones or spend ones you don't own. It is possible to lose your Bitcoin wallet or delete your Bitcoins and lose them forever.